Monologue Research Articles

Stream of consciousness as a narrative technique in the novel Ulysses

This paper focuses on using a stream of consciousness in James Joyce's novel Ulysses. Stream of consciousness is a narrative technique that depicts the continuous flow of thoughts and sensations experienced by characters' minds. In Ulysses, Joyce masterfully employs this technique to delve into the complex minds of his characters, Leopold Bloom and Stephen Dedalus. By abandoning traditional linear storytelling, Joyce captures the intricacies of human thought processes and immerses readers in the characters' inner worlds. The novel's structure and narrative style are characterized by interior monologue, associative thinking, and a fragmented structure. Through these techniques, Joyce offers readers a unique and intimate reading experience, exploring themes of identity, memory, time, and the depiction of Dublin. By embracing the stream of consciousness, Joyce pushes the boundaries of conventional storytelling, inviting readers to engage with his characters' rich and intricate inner lives.

Ömer Seyfettin’in Balkanları Konu Alan Öykülerinin Anlatım Teknikleri Açısından İncelenmesi

Narration techniques, which are used to narrate the subject in a text, contribute to the transformation of the narrative into a multi-layered, multi-meaning and connotative structure. In this way, an original story emerges from the narrative. Ömer Seyfettin, one of the founding names of modern Turkish storytelling, produced hundreds of literary works in his short life. The stories of the author, who spent a part of his life in the Balkans, include elements related to the Balkans, such as the Beyaz Lale, Bomba, and Hürriyet Bayrakları. In this study, these stories of the author were examined in terms of narration techniques. In the study, document analysis, one of the qualitative research methods, was used. At the end of the analysis, it is seen that narration, description, dialogue and interior monologue techniques are used intensively in the these stories, and the interior monologue technique is preferred in a story. It has been seen that these techniques are effective in shaping the preparation phase in the stories, summarizing the events spread over a long period of time, creating an atmosphere, directing the development of the events and revealing the personality traits of the heroes. In addition, it was concluded that these techniques were effective in telling the massacres Muslim-Turks were subjected to in a realistic way during and after the Balkan Wars. At the end of the study, it is suggested that Ömer Seyfettin's stories about the Balkans can be used in Turkish and Literature textbooks prepared for primary and secondary school students. Finally, by using the narrative techniques that are widely preferred in today's story, rewriting studies can be made on Ömer Seyfettin's stories about the Balkans.

Application of the schema-theoretic approach in the interpretation of the stream of consciousness in Wole Soyinka’s The Interpreters

Wole Soyinka’s novel The Interpreters (1965) is arguably one of the most challenging post-colonial novels to read and understand easily. The present paper adopts a pre-test post-test control group experimental treatment design. (Sixty university undergraduate students from three universities were selected and placed in two groups: experimental and control. 60 students from two hundred and thirty, 3 universities eighteen universities. The experimental group was taught using the schema theory and the control group was taught using the conventional method which entails whole class lecture, teacher led instruction. After the experimental treatment a pretest and a post-test was administered. A t-test ruled out pre-experimental differences between the groups. A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) shows that there were statistically significant difference in comprehension level due to the Schema theory method. A multiple regression analysis established that different selected aspects of the stream-of-consciousness: interior monologue, association, montage, plot structure and myth and archetype contribute to the score. The study established that comprehension of stream of consciousness, as a literary technique can be investigated using schema theory.

La «coberta volta» de Bernat de Rocafort: en torno al uso del monólogo interior de tipo deliberativo en laCrònicade Muntaner

AbstractThis article focuses on the use of the deliberative interior monologue in Ramon Muntaner’sCrònicaand is based mainly on an analysis of Chapter 230 of the work. In this chapter, Muntaner employs this narrative technique in order to convey the thoughts of Bernat de Rocafort, one of the key characters in his account of the Catalan expedition to Byzantium (1303–1311). Other examples of similar monologues in theCrònica, attributed to characters such as King Charles of Anjou (Chapter 72) or Roger de Flor (Chapter 199), are also taken into account. In all these cases, the article provides an examination of the narrative context, the main rhetorical and literary characteristics of the monologue, and its role in the psychological characterization of the character. The analysis reveals a common compositional pattern in the fragments studied, as well as the fact that the deliberative monologue is chiefly employed by Muntaner to describe the plans or schemes of characters who are described as wise or astute in the narrative.

Modernism-context and Overlooked Literary Manifestations

The following paper discusses the emergence and characteristics of modernism, a dominant trend in art and culture that emerged in the late 19th century. Modernism encompasses various aspects of culture, including high art, criticism, city planning, and more. In literature, modernism represents a reaction against the conventions of realist narrative, moving away from traditional storytelling and embracing new techniques such as interior monologue and showing instead of telling. The research explores the debate on whether modernism has come to an end. Critics argue that it ended around 1930, while others disagree, pointing to the continued emergence of literary studies on modernism and its influence on various literary theories. The concept of modernism is discussed in an interdisciplinary context, encompassing various artistic currents, including symbolism, impressionism, expressionism, and more. The paper also touches upon the development of modernism in different art forms like visual arts, music, and architecture, and its influence on the concept of the “Bauhaus” movement. Furthermore, the paper discusses the Harlem Renaissance, a cultural movement centered in Harlem, New York, during the early 20th century. It highlights prominent figures of the movement, such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Richard Bruce Nugent, who expressed African American life and culture through various forms of art. The impact of mass culture on modernism is also explored, with references to Mathew Arnold’s concept of culture and anarchy and F.R. Leavis’ criticism of mass civilization and its effect on authentic feeling and responsible thinking. Overall, the paper provides and overview of modernism’s multifaceted nature, its influence on various art forms, and its interaction with societal and cultural shifts during the 20th century.

A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN - AN INQUIRY INTO THE CHARACTER’S EVOLUTION

James Joyce, a prominent figure in the modernist literary movement, created the character Stephen Dedalus and revealed an example of how consciousness functions when one searches for direction in life. The chaotic nature of human consciousness is revealed through literary devices and techniques that prove the lifelikeness of the character and the way fiction represents not only the reality of a specific time but the reality of the multitude of meanings present within the content of fictional writing, namely literature. The aim of this paper is to investigate the evolution of the main character in the novel “A Portrait of The Artist as a Young Man” by James Joyce to reveal the way Stephen Dedalus builds his consciousness and finds the tone of his “voice”. The metaphor of the voice is to be considered the conceptual term used to describe the different phases of the character’s evolution and the way he succeeds in creating order among uncertainties, quests, and struggles. The term “voice” is used within the neuro-scientific frame of thought, as defined by Antonio Damasio as being “the representation of the conscious self” (Damasio 2010: 45). Both terms, namely consciousness and voice, lead to psychological content; thus, the nature of the analysis is psychological, literary, and symbolic as well. The mythological dimension is to be interpreted through symbols and their significance. The literary dimension revolves around literary techniques such as interior monologue and stream of consciousness, and the psychological frame includes elements that connect literature and psychology.

Ernest Hemingway’s Iceberg Narrative Method of The Old Man and the Sea

In most of his fictional works and in the line of his previous experience as a journalist and war reporter, Ernest Hemingway developed writing techniques peculiar to him to be followed by many predecessors after him. Among the well-known techniques are the one, in which he called “the iceberg theory.” The present paper concerns itself with analyzing this literary technique used by Hemingway in “The Old Man and the Sea.” This novella, written in 1952, and awarded Nobel Prize 1954 and Pulitzer Prize 1953, achieved a great successnot only in the writer’s career but also in the world of fiction as well. Hemingway’s exceptional use of the iceberg technique renowned the novella among his masterpieces and himself as a world Avant-garde in the fictional sphere. This is due to using a simple economical language. Yet, this simple language is full of symbols, metaphors, similes, allusions, personifications, interior monologues, repetitions, soliloquies, etc. All these devices provide another cognitive approach to this story delivered in a much unsophisticated language. This unique style, though written in prose, once has their sentences broken down they may be read as poetic. The aim of this paper is to trace these elements in a novel approach to reading Hemingway’s this masterpiece.

Interior monologue in cinematographic art as a way to convey the character’s thoughts and feelings

Cinematographic art uses various and multiple expressive methods, including those borrowed from literature and theater, one of which is the inner monologue. In a film, the inner monologue is usually short, succinct, like a flash of the mind reflecting on what is happening, or a thought about certain possible consequences, or some evocations… Since, the purpose of a film is not just to present the characters’ world of actions and passions, but also their spiritual life.

Les intérieurs naturalistes et démocratiques d’Arnold Bennett dans The Old Wives’ Tale (1908)

We know the terms in which Virginia Woolf dismissed Edwardian writers for relying exclusively on materialism. However, another take on Arnold Bennett’s specific approach to objects and interior spaces is made possible by a reappraisal of his naturalistic method. This type of Edwardian fiction reveals a political agenda buoyed up by an empirical narrative praxis. Drawing on Bennett’s The Old Wives’ Tale (1908), we show that Edwardian literary interiors turn into literary tools from which considering oneself, the others and the world out there, differently. Interiors in this novel should be read in spatial, physical, and narrative terms, since Bennett invents new modes of dwelling in order to endow his characters with new ways of narrating themselves. The Baines sisters literally and literarily are the place they inhabit, to the point of being unaware of any distinction between inside and outside. The main narrative strategy of the book is inflected by a centripetal movement that makes us move down and within various forms of interior places and narratives, in which interiority leads to unexpected intimate moments. Seeing, understanding and taming interior places so as to assert oneself narratively and intimately: such is the gist of Bennett’s democratic literary proposition. This is how his naturalism based on an empirical art of the narrative and a surprising use of interior monologue gestures towards a democratic opening of literature in which doorframes, windows and thresholds help us reconsider the aesthetic and political meanings of interiority.

Cormac McCarthy, Philosophy and the Physics of the Damned

Patrick O’Connor’s Cormac McCarthy, Philosophy and the Physics of the Damned joins several book-length studies that engage philosophical questions in McCarthy’s work. Other recent studies in this vein include Petra Mundik’s A Bloody and Barbarous God: The Metaphysics of Cormac McCarthy (U of New Mexico P, 2016), Ty Hawkins’s Cormac McCarthy’s Philosophy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), Christopher Eagle’s edited collection Philosophical Approaches to Cormac McCarthy: Beyond Reckoning (Routledge, 2017), and Julius Greve’s Shreds of Matter: Cormac McCarthy and the Concept of Nature (Dartmouth College P, 2018). O’Connor advances conversation regarding the philosophical bent of McCarthy’s oeuvre by illuminating in the author’s body of work a “tragic ontology,” or what he calls the “physics of the damned,” which is “a domain of lawlessness affecting the human community” (4). O’Connor’s combined use of materialism and metaphysics in his analysis provides a fresh approach to philosophical interpretations of McCarthy, whereas previous scholarship has emphasized, in O’Connor’s perspective, “theological, juridical, naturalist and postmodern readings” (5). The book contains seven chapters and draws most of its discussion from Suttree, Blood Meridian, No Country for Old Men, The Road, McCarthy’s unpublished screenplay Whales and Men, his play The Sunset Limited, and his essay “The Kekulé Problem.”In chapter 1, O’Connor analyzes the philosophical implications regarding language in Whales and Men and “The Kekulé Problem.” In Whales and Men, which O’Connor considers more a work of nonfiction or philosophy than creative writing, the characters’ conversations make clear that language is a “human invention” that helps them understand reality and the nature of the world (17). Nevertheless, Whales and Men makes clear that language gives people a false “sense of ownership and possession” and thus is often used for nefarious ends (18). In “The Kekulé Problem,” McCarthy’s attention to the way images communicate with dreamers “implies a gap between the unconscious and our interior monologue” (24). The unconscious eschews language in its attempts to instruct the dreamer, which points to the possibility that for McCarthy, language is unnecessary for grasping reality. McCarthy’s issue with the way language is often used for the purposes of domination, then, gestures toward his novels’ reliance on “mythic tropes” that portray “human psychology as continuous with a struggle against—and with—the reproduction of life in a material and physical universe” (31). In other words, McCarthy’s allusions to myths, and his employment of images and symbols, convey a philosophical distrust of language.Chapter 2 builds upon the discussion of language in the first chapter by focusing on the titular character Suttree’s preoccupation with death and his desire to escape the physical world. By drawing heavily on the philosopher Maurice Blanchot, O’Connor argues that Suttree demonstrates the insight that “our ability to understand the world in linguistic terms is accompanied by an inability to see deeper truths” (37). Suttree’s pursuit of autonomy and self-sufficiency is continually undermined by material realities and at the end of the novel, he “becomes radically individuated, aware of human origins, limitations and possibilities” (55). For O’Connor, these changes in Suttree evince the author’s philosophical interest in humans’ acceptance of their place in an overwhelming physical world. In chapter 3, O’Connor turns to Blood Meridian to engage the question of McCarthy’s nihilism, which would suggest his renunciation of metaphysics, ethics, and philosophy in general. O’Connor characterizes Judge Holden as a “passive nihilist” and asserts that McCarthy presents this perspective in order to provide a counterargument in the kid, whom O’Connor dubs an “active nihilist” and who notably resists Holden (70, 80). O’Connor writes that the kid is “a psychopath in his own right” who nevertheless “retain[s] some trace of decency which besmirches Holden’s closed view of nature” (82).O’Connor’s study of The Sunset Limited in chapter 4 may be the best representation of his thesis. He argues that the conversation between Black and White results in the unification of disparate philosophical positions, which can be extended to philosophical questions elsewhere in McCarthy’s body of work. More specifically, O’Connor asserts that The Sunset Limited “demonstrates [McCarthy’s] general strategy of viewing humans as intersecting between spiritualism and materialism, matter and meaning, despair and hope” (92). One perspective is not privileged over the other, and the tragedy of the play is in the characters’ failure to grow or change through their contact with each other. Chapter 5 continues O’Connor’s discussion of disparate philosophical positions through The Road, which he views as a work in which both materialist and theological analysis is essential. Although The Road depicts the collapse of a world built upon consumerism, the novel is nevertheless philosophically preoccupied with the stark materiality of the world and its implications for human survival and community. He writes that “the boy is a symbol of inherent goodness” and yet even he “must face the prospect of starvation and its attendant spiritual and moral degradation once the scavenging of ever-dwindling resources and canned goods expires” (124).In chapter 6, O’Connor draws upon Jacques Derrida to interpret No Country for Old Men, which presents a philosophical dichotomy between Anton Chigurh and Ed Tom Bell. O’Connor characterizes Chigurh as “a figure of the law, of the calculable, of a rational accounting,” whereas Bell resonates with a distinctive, Derrida-inflected openness regarding ethical questions and decisions (146). Challenging previous accounts of Bell that label him as a spokesperson for conservatism, O’Connor points out that Bell questions the durability of his values and ultimately recognizes “that the moral code he has inhabited all his life is sacrificed to a rabid capitalism” (163). Chapter 7 extends O’Connor’s philosophical analysis of McCarthy to the ways in which the author engages political issues, especially “distinctly anarchistic themes” (174). As in the previous chapters, O’Connor interprets McCarthy as bringing together opposing perspectives, a position that aligns the novelist with the political philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville. For example, in his discussion of The Road, O’Connor argues that “McCarthy unites the fatalism and optimism that Tocqueville sees at the core of American democracy” (188). This chapter includes extensive analysis of The Orchard Keeper, which depicts the effects of government programs in the Tennessee Valley that were responses to the Great Depression, as well as The Stonemason, a work that commends anarchistic ways of living. O’Connor’s conclusion not only summarizes the book’s argument and reflects on its larger implications for McCarthy studies but champions the insights of literary-philosophical writing. In particular, he argues that the “singular purpose” of literature “is to reveal the force, rapidity, originality and sheer presence of the world unfurling” (205). O’Connor’s philosophical investigation of McCarthy’s work indeed makes clear that the author trenchantly fulfills this purpose.Scholars interested in the growing resources on philosophy in McCarthy’s work will appreciate the way Cormac McCarthy, Philosophy and the Physics of the Damned advances this conversation, particularly his engagement of archival materials (such as Whales and Men and drafts of the published works) and his interest in lesser-discussed works, including “The Kekulé Problem” and The Sunset Limited. At times, O’Connor’s argument lacks cohesion and would have benefitted from stronger connections across chapters and more overt references to “the physics of the damned.” His discussion of nihilism in Blood Meridian, though very engaging and astute, seems more obligatory than necessary to his thesis. O’Connor’s use of various philosophers, who in general are quite distinct from each other, such as Plato, Aristotle, Tocqueville, Nietzsche, Derrida, and Blanchot, is somewhat jarring, although this diversity in philosophical traditions indeed serves his argument that “the philosophical inflection of McCarthy’s work does not equate with a systematic philosophy” (6).As both a scholar of McCarthy and a professor who teaches his work nearly every semester, I was particularly drawn to O’Connor’s promise in his introduction to address how the author’s “broader philosophical ontology . . . tackles the urgent and relevant questions of our age such as technology, the fate of politics, the environment, and the very possibility of language and community” (5). Although some chapters make good on this promise indirectly through brief reflections written in collective first-person, other chapters, especially those on Blood Meridian and The Sunset Limited, provide valuable insights regarding the application of McCarthy’s work to current issues. Regarding Blood Meridian, O’Connor argues, “the fate of the kid mirrors the fate of the reader” and “McCarthy firmly places us all in the twilight of the idols” (85, 86). In the chapter on The Sunset Limited, O’Connor devotes two sections to the pedagogical implications of the dramatic work, speculating on what it suggests regarding the limits and failures of the American education system. Readers of this book who teach McCarthy will find this aspect of the book particularly helpful, especially where O’Connor references connections pertinent to students’ lives. Overall, this book will be of interest to McCarthy critics and teachers as well as interdisciplinary scholars who focus on the intersections between American literature and philosophy.

A Register-Based Study of Interior Monologue in James Joyce’s Ulysses

While fictional orality (spoken language in fictional texts) has received some attention in the context of quantitative register studies at the interface of linguistics and literature, only a few attempts have been made so far to apply the quantitative methods of register studies to interior monologues (and other forms of inner speech or thought representation). This article presents a case study of the three main characters of James Joyce’s Ulysses whose thoughts are presented extensively in the novel, i.e., Leopold and Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus. Making use of quantitative, corpus-based methods, the thoughts of these characters are compared to fictional direct speech and (literary and non-literary) reference texts. We show that the interior monologues of Ulysses span a range of non-narrative registers with varying degrees of informational density and involvement. The thoughts of one character, Leopold Bloom, differ substantially from that character’s speech. The relative heterogeneity across characters is taken as an indication that interior monologue is used as a means of perspective taking and implicit characterization.

Fictions of the Mind: A Psychoanalytical and Cognitive Narratological Analysis of Mediacy in D.H. Lawrence’s <i>The Fox</i>

As its main goal, this study seeks to contribute to the analysis of narrative discourse by investigating the strategies and devices provided by modern prose fictions like D.H. Lawrence’s The Fox for constructing/representing fictional minds or the consciousness of fictional characters in narrative texts. The paper is structured in two sections. Drawing from the insights of both Classical and Poststructuralist narratology, the theoretical section of this paper brings together narratological theories, methods, concepts and devices for representing textual minds and consciousness: psychonarration, free indirect discourse (narrated monologue), interior monologue, stream of consciousness, focalization, reflectorization, cognitive methods, and devices of mental states. The second is the analytical section which constitutes a practical demonstration of how the above narratological methods, concepts and devices can fulfill descriptive, interpretive and analytical functions with respect to the question of how fictional minds and consciousness are represented or manifested in modern narratives. On the whole, the paper attempts to answer the question, which narratological categories and methods are relevant for the analysis of mind-related aspects of narrative discourse? For illustrative purposes, D. H. Lawrence’s The Fox is used as staging grounds.

Narcissistic Fiction: Music Theater of the Everyday in Édouard Dujardin’s Les Lauriers sont coupés (1887)

The Symbolist novella Les Lauriers sont coupés (1887) by Édouard Dujardin (1861–1949) is the first work of fiction in Western literature to be entirely written as an interior monologue. Yet it took more than thirty years for Dujardin’s innovation to be recognized thanks to James Joyce acknowledging Les Lauriers as an important formal influence for Ulysses (1922). Subsequently, Dujardin claimed in the essay “Le monologue intérieur” (1931) that his goal had been to transpose Wagnerian procedures into writing. Since then, scholars have either denied or confirmed the novel’s Wagnerian inspiration. The latter interpretation has become the consensus in scholarship. However, in their efforts to connect Les Lauriers with Wagner, previous studies have neglected the constant presence of French musical theater references in the novel, presumably because their presence represents a form of paradox for a devout Wagnerite like Dujardin. This article is the first to analyze them. It also ties these references together with Symbolism’s interest in metafiction, that is to say, in fiction that reflects on its own existence as fiction. I argue that Dujardin was eager to follow the model of the Wagnerian novel proposed by his friend Teodor de Wyzewa in the Revue wagnérienne, that of setting on paper the poet’s entire existence by depicting his/her every emotion, sensation, and thought. In his discovery of the difficulty involved in performing such a task, Dujardin switched his focus to what his mentor Mallarmé called a “Type”: a depersonalized character, who is supposed to stand in as a representative of France’s youth. Hence, the protagonist of Les Lauriers sont coupés being an average character, with musical tastes that are illustrative of his time. Thus, the numerous musical references peppering Les Lauriers are not connected to the elitist world of Wagnerism in the 1880s, but rather to what were then beloved favorites like François-Marie Boieldieu’s La Dame blanche (1825), or Edmond Audran’s La Mascotte (1880). But there is an added twist, as Dujardin did not let go of Wagner’s influence entirely and used Audran’s operetta as a springboard with which to experiment with Wagnerian leitmotifs in literature. Ultimately, I show that the musical references in Les Lauriers are systematically divorced from real-life performance in order to become strictly mental creations that highlight just how isolated and self-absorbed the protagonist—and, by extension, the author himself in the act of creation—really is.

Finance, Fiction, and Loss

Two new books argue that fictional depictions of loss reveal how eighteenth-century Britons conceived personhood, agency, and wealth. Technically intricate yet pristinely written, Nicole Mansfield Wright's Defending Privilege and Katherine Binhammer's Downward Mobility probe the novel's formal mechanics to examine the stories we tell about law and finance, respectively. Wright claims that by scripting private conversations and interior monologues, fiction can teach us how “foundational principles of societal obligation took hold in the eighteenth century and became entrenched.” Binhammer wagers that narrative's insistence upon “meaningful connection” can show the lie to the epistemological shell game by which “financialization comes to appear as commonsense” and growth economies remain desirable despite their social debris and ecological fallout. Both Wright and Binhammer assert the relevance of literary studies to the present by centering interpretive reading as a political practice for assembling broader coalitions against the “specter of authoritarianism” (Wright) and reimagining what “it might mean to share resources in more equitable and sustainable ways” (Binhammer).Defending Privilege examines a raft of conservative novels that perceive the British legal system as a threat to hereditary advantage. Where critics often focus on writing that flatters what they believe to be their own democratic values, Wright salvages a “neglected inheritance” that defies the supposition that literature unvaryingly seeks equality among citizens and justice for the oppressed. Her readings of Tobias Smollett, Charlotte Turner Smith, Walter Scott, and a crew of slavery apologists find authors floundering to “justify traditional social hierarchies despite progressive cultural headwinds.” These fictions preserve privilege by casting the privileged as victims of arbitrary justices, frivolous litigants, distasteful arrivistes, shameless frauds, and dishonest witnesses. Wright demonstrates how the rising novel enabled conservative authors to entice readers with “nostalgic fantasies of a continuation of rigid social hierarchy” by first promising them “an access portal into legal systems that were bewildering and opaque.” And yet, as Defending Privilege's careful readings bear out, these covert ideological projects undermined their reactionary claims through their self-reflexive, polyvocal forms. The fictions that ostensibly defended privilege often sabotaged it by inadvertently advancing the very egalitarian claims their authors sought to discredit.In chapter 1, Wright argues that Smollett's understudied novels, Ferdinand Count Fathom and Sir Launcelot Greaves, and little-known stage comedy, The Reprisal, illustrate the “juridical limbo in which travelers, noncitizens, and other outsiders become marooned on entering alien jurisdictions.” To safeguard the rights of mobile aristocrats, Smollett champions what Wright calls a “flexibility of affinity” as a condition of legal access that protects privileged interlopers from the caprices of parochial rule and hostile jurisdictions. Communities are just, Smollett implies, to the extent that they redefine themselves to accommodate worthy visitors. But as Wright shows, plots that hinge on pliable justices and ad hoc identity performances threaten to undermine privilege by casting “doubt on the belief that we can reliably differentiate between those who deserve access to the legal system,” and those who don't. We learn, in chapter 2, that Charlotte Smith adapted the sentimental romance into an instrument of conservative legal critique by writing marriage plots that compel sympathy for the plight of women struggling to restore dissipated estates. Where students of eighteenth-century poetry may associate Smith with her humanitarian embrace of persecuted foreigners in The Emigrants, her reworking of the French and German pitaval form to anthologize gentry grievance and her novel Marchmont (1796) espouse intolerance toward the “the economic elevation of class interlopers.”Wright, in chapter 3, reads Walter Scott's novel in letters, Redgauntlet (1824), as a “reflection on the continuum between advocacy and authoritarian control of those who cannot speak for themselves.” Wright argues that Scott revives the epistolary mode, which had grown unfashionable by the 1820s, to suggest that “the voices of the lowly ought to be embedded in, and contained by, the authorized expression of the educated.” Attorneys enable poor litigants to obtain justice at the cost of modulating their complaints, thereby preventing underclass resentment from destabilizing “traditional social hierarchy.” Wright claims that Redgauntlet's epistolary form alerts readers to this coercive bargain and to the inequities governing a professionalized advocacy system under which certain people speak for others. Chapter 4 covers two proslavery novels, Cynric Williams's Hamel, the Obeah Man (1827) and the anonymous Marly: Or, a Planter's Life in Jamaica (1828), which attempt to disqualify black slaves from testifying against Caribbean planters. At a time when West Indian legislators debated whether slaves could bear sworn witness against whites, these works endow their African characters with a sophisticated affective repertoire of “prevarication or evasive silence,” to imply a “conniving, duplicitous” population over whom “whites would need to keep a firm upper hand.” However, like other reactionary works, proslavery fictions tend to defeat themselves, in this case by portraying “some blacks as more rational and emotionally mature than whites, calling into question the fundamental justification for slavery.”Wright's blow-by-blow account of backfiring conservative experiments contributes to a wider disciplinary project of dismantling a mythological eighteenth century characterized by a “driving desire for equality for all,” a historical fiction ardently retold by such disparate authors and orators as Steven Pinker, David Cameron, and Ronald Reagan. By roving beyond the canon's catchment, Defending Privilege returns a more complicated picture of Enlightenment jurisprudence, one characterized by contradiction, confusion, and surprising overlaps between humanitarian and conservative expression. This picture, Wright persuasively demonstrates, equips us to debunk the spurious pretexts under which an idealized eighteenth century is invoked to legitimate demagoguery today.Eighteenth-century ideological inheritance is just as urgently at stake in Binhammer's Downward Mobility, a nuanced and painstakingly researched study of economic diminution that could capably serve as a long history of the 2008 financial crisis. Binhammer argues that money obtains narrative form when it graduates from metal coin into paper currency and speculative capital, a transformation that followed the founding of the Bank of England, the creation of insurance, and the maturation of stock markets. Undertaking a structural analysis of “money's novelization,” Binhammer shows how sentimental fiction's discrete conventions “manage the temporal and structural contradictions behind capital's logic of infinite and compounding growth.” Her readings advance Frances Burney, Oliver Goldsmith, Sarah Scott, and Frances Brooke not merely as witnesses to a commercial economy reconstituting itself to wring profit from exchange, but also as plotters of capital whose feats of narrative invention render sentimental stories worthy objects of financial criticism.In chapter 1, Binhammer describes debt as an endlessly reassignable “cost of doing business” rather than a moral problem or index of suffering. She coins the phrase “unfriended debt” to describe the process by which “wealth accumulates by estranging the costs of meeting our social obligations to one another.” She also describes the severing of fiscal responsibility from social duty by studying two responses to the failure of bankruptcy laws to relieve the insolvent poor. The liberal Society for the Discharge and Relief of Persons Imprisoned for Small Debts forgave the debts of those who lacked the large liabilities necessary to qualify as bankrupts and could attest their moral worthiness via petition. The radical James Stephen, meanwhile, decried altogether the custom by which “poor debtors are carrying the entire risk of economic growth,” thus becoming the first “debt resistor.”The differentiation of forgivable debtors from swindlers and profligates entailed characterization, the novelistic device that anchors chapter 2’s examination of debt's alchemical transformation into equity. Binhammer's comparative reading of two fictive debtors, the charitable patriot, Harry Fenton of Henry Brooke's Fool of Quality, who discharges the burdens of others, and the reckless Primrose of Vicar of Wakefield, whose arrears land him in jail, suggests that the readerly pleasure of character accrues from the “risks a text takes with misinterpretation, . . . risks that call for more-complex interpretive strategies.” Characters become leverageable assets in novels that engross readers by holding out the possibility that someone “might not be who they say they are.”In chapter 3, Binhammer surveys fictions that nest stories within themselves—a sustained analysis of narrative framing that bears structural affinity to Wright's study of lawyerly mediation. Embedded narratives, Binhammer claims, reproduce “capitalism's internal contradictions,” particularly the tension between use-value and exchange-value. In the book's most formally granular chapter, Binhammer sorts embedded tales by their level (the number of removes between an implanted story and the main plot), voice (who delivers a given story and how), voice level (whether the teller of an embedded story is present in the diegesis), and function (whether an embedded story changes the main plot, accentuates its themes, or merely digresses from it). Binhammer uses this taxonomy to size up a variety of texts, including Man of Feeling, David Simple, Emily Montague, and Millenium Hall, concluding that just as capitalism defines itself through infinite circulation “sentimental fiction is grounded in an infinite accumulation of stories.”The final two chapters concentrate on novels by Frances Burney. In chapter 4, we discover that capital's plot becomes legible in sentimental fiction as an intersection of different temporalities. Binhammer argues that Cecilia's plot abides not by the linear progression of boundless gain that Adam Smith serenely charts in Wealth of Nations, but through the stochastic collision of “multiple temporal worlds that circulate, coexist, conflict, and coalesce.” This convergence of time becomes palpable in scenes that cast Burney's protagonist as cornered, coerced, thwarted, stuck in traffic. Cecilia escapes only by pursuing the risk mitigation strategy of marriage, a “safe bet” that Binhammer likens to savings bonds. In chapter 5, where the focus is on Camilla, Binhammer asks whether the endings of novels can teach us anything about the end of capitalism. Observing that sentimental plots often overrun the marriage scenes we might expect to conclude them, Binhammer attributes this surplus to the delay between the buying and selling of capital, a deferral that has led critics to censure Camilla for its seemingly herky-jerky plot. In a world that genders “consumption as feminine,” Camilla's inability to “meet everyone's economic and social needs simultaneously” implies a capitalist economy that requires its participants to produce and consume surplus value in perpetuity.Downward Mobility contains a complex argument, which may challenge readers for whom phrases like “collateralized debt obligations” summon less than crystal clear referents. Binhammer undauntedly acknowledges the difficulty of her subject matter and makes surmounting the impenetrable mysticisms of finance an explicit pedagogical goal. She navigates through an abstruse conceptual realm to attune readers to the forms and conventions that actually govern it. By taking seriously sentimental fiction's account of how wealth happens and recedes, Binhammer employs the tools of criticism to get to the bottom of what economics really is.

Literary influence and author's technique in Mario Vargas Llosa's novel "The Time of the Hero"

The novel "The Time of the Hero" by the Peruvian Nobel laureate, Mario Vargas Llosa, is the firstborn of the Latin American Boom. Vargas Llosa, the last representative of the Boom, broke the model of naturalistic representation of description and gained an aesthetic independence stimulated by the European experience and the discovery of innovative forms of narration. Three worlds are depicted in his works: a logical world, a game between fiction and reality, and reality that turns into fiction, into literary creation. His narrative is characterized by technical experiments, complex syntax and different forms of narration, which are manifested in the variety of narrative focus, the breakdown of chronology, interior monologue, the manner of urban narration and the ambiguous character of the characters, which are clearly expressed in his first novel “The Time of the Hero”. His style is also called Vargas Llosa’s style. Vargas Llosa offers us a space where the lexical heritage of Peru can be seen in different registers of the language: everyday colloquial vocabulary, regionalisms and slang. Using modernist techniques, Vargas Liosa blurs the boundaries between fiction and everyday life and turns this mixture into a new reality. As was typical of the Latin American Boom, “The Time of the Hero” represented a departure from traditional literature. Latin American writers of the previous generation used simple artistic forms to present realistic and social aspects, but Mario Vargas Llosa chose innovative forms and structures of narration to present the mentioned circumstances, he used the voices of the characters to give the story an intimate and psychological look. Using modernist techniques, the author wants to show us the inner world of the characters, their thoughts and feelings, which consists in jumping from one place to another, from one moment to another, from one character to another. That is why the description of naturalistic language of the characters and their sexual inclinations gains fundamental importance from the point of view of the technique. Vargas Llosa wanted to express the disorganization and spontaneity of the human mind in the narrative, that's why he jumps from topic to topic by means of strange connections and allows the reader to be the co-author of the narrative, because according to the author, the work takes its finished form only in the reader's mind. By bringing to the fore the various problems of the characters, such as the level of education, customs, vocabulary, violent treatment, manners, symbolism, existential crisis, etc., the author further increases the level of reality and allows the reader to easily perceive the objective reality.

The Convention of Self-Addressed Speech in Shakespeare’s Plays: New Empirical Data

This essay presents the findings of a long-term empirical investigation into the history of soliloquies. The investigation is based on the bedrock distinction between dialogue in the sense of a speech directed at the hearing of one or more other characters and soliloquy in the sense of a speech not directed at the hearing of any other character. Many soliloquies so defined are short; many are guarded in asides from the hearing of other characters; many are unguarded in the presence of other characters. Scholars have ignored these categories and so have underestimated the vast extent of Shakespeare’s employment of the convention and the contexts in which soliloquies occur. The present essay presents for the first time a comprehensive account of all 1185 soliloquies in the canon by indicating the number of soliloquies in each play, the number of characters who soliloquize in each play, the gender distribution of soliloquizers, etc. The essay also presents new evidence that soliloquies in Shakespeare’s plays represented self-addressed speeches as a matter of convention (rather than audience addressed speeches or interior monologues). What emerges from this survey is a new appreciation of Shakespeare’s daring inventiveness in employing the convention that governed soliloquies in his plays.

The translator’s presence in (re)translations ofTo the Lighthouseinto Italian: a corpus-driven study

In a corpus approach to empirical translation study, I compare three re-translations of Virginia Woolf’s To the Lighthouse into Italian by Nadia Fusini in the 1990s and 2012 with the first translation by Giulia Celenza, published in 1934. The focus is on how and to what degree those translations render the modernist characteristics of the source text. The adopted method is implemented using suitable annotations of the digital texts. All the occurrences of linguistic and extra-linguistic features, including the stream of consciousness, indirect interior monologue and free indirect discourse, are identified and manually tagged in xml/tei code throughout the texts examined. A bespoke computer program is used to extract, align and compare the literary features. The results show the translators’ target-culture orientation in both ‘distant’ and ‘close reading’, with interesting instances of source text-orientation in the later re-translations.

ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LITERATURE AND PSYCHOLOGY

This research paper analyzes the relationship between Literature and Psychology and how they are connected with each other in order to portray the characters more beautifully. Psychology plays a very important role in the literature whether we talk about the one who writes the story or the one who reads it. It makes a strong connection between a writer and a reader. The author is not just influenced by society, he influences society. This study explores the significant role psychology plays in literature, the relationship between these two subjects, and how psychology helps an author to write a piece of literature that is more interesting to read. It also focuses on the different features and elements which the writer chooses to make the story more captivating. The study has been conducted by researching different journals, e-books, books, and websites. Undoubtedly, psychology helps the writers to present the characters successfully, expressing their feelings, moods, emotions, and especially their thoughts and how the different events affect the mental lives of the characters. Some examples are given from different novels for reference that how the characters are portrayed and how deep the author depicts his/ her characters.
 Keywords: Realism, Stream of Consciousness, Fiction, Psychology, Interior Monologue, Characterization, Literature, Modernism.

Interior Monologue as a Stylistic Device in Constructing the Character of Santiago in Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea

The current investigation takes up Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea and provides a corpus-based analysis by selecting monologues as data for this study. The focal point of this corpus analysis is to highlight and identify textual features in the construction of the character of Santiago. This study goes for a corpus stylistic analysis of the selected text and unravels textual features which were previously unnoticed. Only monologues are selected as corpus data and AntConc 3.5.8 (Anthony, 2010) is utilized as a tool for corpus analysis. The study displays the significant role of corpus-based approaches for a better understanding of a literary text. It is clear after this analysis, corpus-based approaches in studying Hemingway's monologues highlight linguistic features of monologues and provide new avenues and perspectives, thus enhancing the value of literary corpus stylistics.

『맨해튼 트랜스퍼』에 나타난 도시 사물성과 살아있음의 윤리

This essay aims to read the urban spaces in John Dos Passos’ Manhattan Transfer through affect theory. Affect theory concerns the pre-conscious aspect of ordinary urban events and comprises of two dimensions: the physical, in which there are skyscrapers, streets, advertising signs, and so on; another is the non-physical, which includes intermediate things such as smells and sounds, the surface effect that rain or electric light creates on urban spaces, and the ineffable after effects of these, caught in urban dwellers’ interior monologues. While physical things in urban spaces reveal that socio-linguistic structures might be stuck in a binary oppositional grid, non-physical things refer to those middle spaces beyond the dichotomy of things and consciousness. These spaces are a realm of potential where “futurity combines, unmediated, with pastness, where outsiders are infolded, and sadness is happy (happy because the press to action and expression is life)”(Massumi, “Autonomy” 91). Intangible and ineffable urban things mark the indeterminate and eventual nature of concrete action and material facade, that is, those forces behind the actual phenomena of New York City, in which looms the virtuality of continuous variation and passage. In these domains, what is also real is the alignment of individuals with others and the permeable mode of selfhood, generated by means of affective transmission. For many scholars, this so-called affective turn is ethical because it demands that we accept not only the unknowability of the other but also the otherness of the self which, once accepted, makes possible for any human subject the capacity for being alive as possible.